The goal of the proposed investigation is to investigate processes of cultural change among first and second generation migrant mothers in two host countries. Specifically, the study examines changes in parental beliefs and practices among six groups of working-class mothers of 18 to 24 month old children: first and second generation migrant Puerto Rican, Euro-American, first and second generation migrant Turkish, and German. In particular, data will be obtained through naturalistic observations and through in depth interviews regarding mothers' parenting beliefs and practices, social networks, and migratory experiences. The long term objectives of the project are to: (1) elucidate indigenous childrearing beliefs and practices among Puerto Rican and Turkish migrant mothers, thus providing culturally-sensitive criteria along which to understand these populations; (2) examine and compare first and second generation migrant mothers, with specific attention to the development of monocultural versus bicultural orientations as indexed by the content of childrearing beliefs and practices; and (3) provide information regarding the circumstances under which migrant mothers may or may not develop a bicultural identity. Briefly, it is hypothesized that: (a) first generation Puerto Rican and Turkish mothers will manifest a more sociocentric orientation in their childrearing beliefs and practices than will Euro-American and German mothers; and (b) the extent to which the childrearing beliefs and practices of second generation mothers are similar to or different from those of both first generation migrant and host culture mothers will relate to specific life circumstances, such as the composition of social networks, relative socioeconomic success in the host country, and positive versus negative experiences in and perceptions of the host country.